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Who is Paul's “god of this age”? – 2 Corinthians 4:4
Second Corinthians 4:4 names two gods
One verse, two gods
| In 2 Cor 4:4 | The god of this age | The God whose image is Christ |
|---|---|---|
| What he does | Blinds minds | Is seen in Christ, His image |
| Toward Jesus | Stops people seeing Him | Jesus is His image |
| Next verses | Keeps the light out (4:4) | Shines the light in Jesus' face (4:6) |
The first god hides the image of the second God.
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Who readers said the blinder was
| When and who | Answer |
|---|---|
| c. 140s Marcion | Yhwh, not Jesus' Father |
| c. 180 Irenaeus | Yhwh blinds. He moves "of this age" to the unbelievers |
| c. 208 Tertullian | First Irenaeus's answer, then the devil as simpler |
| 1535 Erasmus | Satan |
| 1547 John Calvin | Satan, at Yhwh's command |
| Today | Satan is the usual answer in church |
The earliest readers said Yhwh blinds. Satan became the usual answer much later.
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The case, in plain terms
What Exodus says and what Paul says
| Question | Exodus 34 | 2 Cor 3 |
|---|---|---|
| Israel and the face | Afraid to approach (34:30) | Could not keep their eyes on it (3:7) |
| The glory | Never said to end | "Made ineffective" (3:7, 3:13) |
| Why the veil | No reason given. It goes on after Moses finishes speaking (34:33) | To keep Israel from staring at the result of that glory (3:13) |
| Whose glory | Moses had spoken with Yhwh (34:29) | The glory of the ministry that produced death (3:7) |
Paul uses Yhwh's covenant story to say its glory was being shut down.
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The two ministries in 2 Cor 3
| Reference | On stone | By the Spirit |
|---|---|---|
| 3:3 | Stone tablets | Human hearts |
| 3:6 | The letter kills | The Spirit gives life |
| 3:7–8 | Produced death | The ministry of the Spirit |
| 3:9 | Produced condemnation | Produces righteousness |
| 3:11 | Made ineffective | Remains |
The ministry Yhwh gave on stone killed and condemned.
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Where the veil goes
| Reference | Where the veil is |
|---|---|
| Exodus 34:33 | On Moses' face, after he finishes speaking |
| 2 Cor 3:13 | On Moses' face, hiding the result of the glory |
| 2 Cor 3:14 | On the reading of the old covenant |
| 2 Cor 3:15 | Over the minds of the listeners, whenever Moses is read |
| 2 Cor 3:16 | Removed when someone turns to the Lord, who is the Spirit (3:17) |
| 2 Cor 4:3 | Over the gospel, among those who are perishing |
The veil moves from Moses' face to the minds of people hearing Moses read.
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The same minds, hardened then blinded
| Reference | Whose minds | What happens to them |
|---|---|---|
| 2 Cor 3:14 | People hearing the old covenant read | Hardened. The NET prints "closed" |
| 2 Cor 3:15 | The same people, whenever Moses is read | A veil lies over them |
| 2 Cor 4:4 | Those who do not believe | Blinded by the god of this age |
Paul uses the same word for "minds" in 3:14 and 4:4. The group gets wider. The subject does not change.
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The title before Paul
| Text | Wording | Who it names |
|---|---|---|
| 1 Enoch 1:4 | "god of the age" | The one coming down in a Sinai judgment scene |
| Daniel 5:4, Septuagint | "god of the age" | The god who holds authority over human breath |
| Any text before Paul | Used for Satan | None found (Poobalan, 2015) |
| 2 Cor 4:4 | "god of this age" | The god who blinds |
Before Paul, the title named the god of Sinai. No one used it for Satan.
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Paul names the God whose image is Christ
| Reference | What Paul says |
|---|---|
| 2 Cor 4:4 | The god of this age blinds minds |
| 2 Cor 4:4 | Christ is the image of God |
| 2 Cor 4:5 | Jesus Christ is Lord |
| 1 Cor 8:6 | One God, the Father, and one Lord, Jesus Christ |
| 2 Cor 4:6 | God shines the light in the face of Christ |
Christ is the image of the Father. The god who blinds is not the Father.
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The argument starts before chapter 4
Paul's argument before and after 2 Cor 4:4
| Reference | What Paul says | What continues |
|---|---|---|
| 2:14–17 | Paul's ministry carries the knowledge of Christ | One ministry and one message |
| 3:1–3 | Stone is set against human hearts | The rival ministries are identified |
| 3:6–9 | The letter kills; the stone ministry produces death and condemnation | Yhwh's covenant is the subject |
| 3:12–15 | The veil remains when Moses is read; minds are hardened | The covenant now blocks understanding |
| 3:16–18 | The veil is removed; unveiled people change into the same image | The answer is Christ and the Spirit |
| 4:1–3 | "Therefore": the gospel is still veiled among those who are perishing | No new subject begins at chapter 4 |
| 4:4 | The god of this age blinds people who do not believe, so they cannot see Christ, the image of God | Yhwh is the blinder. The image belongs to another God, the Father |
| 4:5 | Paul proclaims Jesus Christ as Lord | The image is Jesus, the one Lord |
| 4:6 | The Father shines His glory in the face of Jesus | The Father gives the light Yhwh blocks |
The chapter number interrupts the page. It does not interrupt Paul's argument.
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The veil connects hardened minds to blinded minds
The image Paul says the veil hides
| Reference | The image chain |
|---|---|
| 2 Cor 3:18 | Unveiled people are transformed into "the same image" |
| 2 Cor 4:3 | The gospel remains veiled among those who are perishing |
| 2 Cor 4:4 | Yhwh blinds minds so they cannot see Christ, the image of God |
| 2 Cor 4:5 | That Christ is proclaimed as Lord |
| 1 Cor 8:6 | The one God is the Father. The one Lord is Jesus Christ |
| 2 Cor 4:6 | The Father's glory is made known in the face of Jesus |
The veil does not merely hide information. It stops people from seeing the Father's image and being changed into it.
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The age and its rulers are being shut down
The order Paul says is passing away
| Reference | What is being removed | Who stands over it |
|---|---|---|
| 1 Cor 2:6–8 | The rulers of this age are perishing; the Greek uses katargeo | They crucified Jesus without understanding Him |
| 2 Cor 3:7–14 | The glory of the stone covenant is being put out of operation | Yhwh gave the covenant |
| 2 Cor 4:4 | The god of this age blinds people against Jesus | Yhwh is identified by covenant, title, and behavior |
| Galatians 1:4 | Jesus rescues people from the present evil age | The rescue is the Father's will |
The rulers, the stone covenant, and the god belong to the same passing order.
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Two gods in the same verse
The two gods in 2 Cor 4:4
| Question | The god of this age | The God whose image is Christ |
|---|---|---|
| Action | Blinds minds | Gives the image being hidden |
| Relation to Jesus | Stops people seeing Him | Jesus is His image |
| Named by context | Yhwh: covenant, veil, hardening, title | The Father: 1 Cor 8:6 |
| Known Christian name | Satan, the adversary | God, Jesus' Father |
Yhwh blinds people so they cannot see Christ, the image of the Father. Yhwh is not the Father.
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Three faces in the argument
| Reference | The face | What happens |
|---|---|---|
| Exodus 33:11 | Yhwh and Moses | Speak "face to face" |
| Exodus 33:20 | Yhwh's face | "No one can see me and live" |
| 2 Cor 3:7 | Moses' face | Carries the glory of the ministry of death |
| 2 Cor 4:6 | Jesus' face | Gives the glorious knowledge of the Father |
Paul moves from the glory on Moses' face to the Father's light in Jesus' face.
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Who Christians said the blinder was
Commentators could not agree about the blinder
| Date and reader | Identification |
|---|---|
| c. 140s Marcion, teacher in Rome | Yhwh, not Jesus' Father |
| c. 180 Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons | Yhwh blinds. He moves "of this age" from Yhwh to the unbelievers |
| c. 208 Tertullian, writer in Carthage | First Irenaeus's reading, then the devil as the simpler answer |
| c. 350 Cyril of Jerusalem, bishop there | Yhwh, whom Cyril calls the God of the old texts |
| 366–384 Ambrosiaster, anonymous Latin commentator | Yhwh blinds. The title stays where Paul put it |
| c. 400 John Chrysostom, preacher in Antioch | Yhwh, not the devil. Yhwh permits the blindness after unbelief |
| c. 410 Pelagius, teacher in Rome | Either the devil, or Yhwh because of prior unbelief |
| 1535 Erasmus, editor of the Greek New Testament | Satan is "simpler and truer" |
| 1547 John Calvin, Reformer in Geneva | Satan blinds at Yhwh's command |
| 1826 Adam Clarke, Methodist commentator | Yhwh. The Satan reading rests on inherited prejudice |
| 1998 James M. Scott, commentator on 2 Corinthians | More likely Yhwh, based on hardening and earlier uses of the title |
| 2005 Donald E. Hartley, paper on this verse | Yhwh is the god of this age |
| 2015 Ivor G. Poobalan, dissertation on this phrase | The God of Paul's faith, not Satan. Poobalan still merges Yhwh with the Father |
The Satan reading became the Protestant default. It never ended the disagreement.
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